1. Introduction “The creative texts, be they visual, literary, or musical, stress the migration of one character, who stands in as representative of the mass… they create a sort of epic narrative on the scale of Exodus”[1] writes Farah Jasmine Griffin, Professor of African-American Studies at Columbia University, in Who Set You Flowin’?, a non-fiction work on migration. Griffin asserts that the oftentimes individualized experiences of migration narratives embody the overall nature of the African American Great Migration. Numerous literary texts, then, strive to have societal and political influence. While Griffin argues that migration literature is representative of a historical movement, Toni Morrison shows how these narratives serve an ulterior motive: “All of that art-for-art’s-sake is BS… all good art is political.”[2] That is, political in the sense that art—these narratives—encompasses a political response otherwise known as protest. While Griffin focuses on the historical context of migration narratives and Morrison on a political response to art, these objective analyses parallel movement and response on an internal level. As Lawrence Rodgers writes in his non-fiction work Canaan Bound, “Because who one is relies on possessing a sense of one’s place in the world… the process of migration is indelibly tied into the broader quest for identity.”[3] Rodgers argues that migration is not an altogether physical experience but rather an internal and individual pursuit for acceptance and recognition. In order for one to migrate, one has to both physically and internally move. Rodgers identifies African American migration as a search for the Promised Land. 2. Claim Much of African American literature, however, differs from this Biblical migration in that the migrants are often unprepared to journey into the so-called Promised Land and are thus easily misled and corrupted. In other words, the people fail to internally migrate before physically migrating. This results in a discrepancy between fantasy and reality. In their dreams, these migrants envision a bountiful land full of wealth, equality, and peace. Upon arrival, however, these migrants face a foreign world; unable to cope with this new environment, they are swallowed up by the city. The central argument of this paper, then, is that a transformation of the physical does not guarantee a transformation of the internal. Further, in order to fully manifest one’s physical condition, internal migration—a recognition of belonging, sense of identity, and agency—must take place. This paper, through Dunbar’s The Sport of the Gods, Attaway’s Blood on the Forge, and Wright’s Black Boy, will articulate a case for the aforementioned claim in order to shed light on whether these narratives depict a failed, half, or successful migration. It will utilize two perspectives of analysis: 1) the basic plot construction of each novel, and 2) the written text. Through this analysis, it will demonstrate two distinct components of migration: first, the physical, and second, the internal. Finally, it will argue that both Griffin and Morrison’s perspectives on migration literature can be applied to this re-analysis of migration. 3. A Failed Migration Paul Laurence Dunbar’s The Sport of the Gods represents a unique portrayal regarding the physical migration of African Americans. As Martin, Primeau, and Jarrett write in their introduction of The Collected Novels of Paul Laurence Dunbar, Paramount in his accomplishments completed over a short career was his propensity to experiment, [Dunbar’s] degree of success with little experience, and the way he managed to walk a very fine line between what might be accepted or even liked and the full range of his penetrating analysis and satiric wit.[4] Here, Martin, Primeau, and Jarrett note the experimental nature of Dunbar’s writing. In his novel, Dunbar consciously chooses to subvert previous conventions in order to satirically comment on racial injustices. He starkly presents his analysis through the plot; his altogether unique storyline supports the controversial quality of his novels. More specifically, the overall storyline is dark and bitter. The novel begins with the Hamilton family, a family content with the South and satisfied with, even proud of, their status in society as servants of the wealthy Oakley household. Dunbar writes, “The girl did have the prettiest clothes of any of her race in the town…”[5] This complacency and even contentedness with their lives is quickly destroyed after the Oakleys wrongly accuse Berry Hamilton, the father, of stealing money. The police arrest Berry and the Hamiltons flee to New York to escape persecution from both the black community, who is jealous of them, and the white community, who believes Berry to be a thief. The latter parts of this novel show the influence migration had on the family. Once the Hamiltons arrive in the city, the city corrupts them: the son murders a woman, the daughter becomes an abused singer, and the wife remarries. The ending is most tragic; Berry, who is freed after the Oakleys admit that he was falsely accused, migrates northward to find his son in jail, his daughter lost, and his wife married to another man. He takes his wife and returns to the South. Here, Dunbar concludes: It was not a happy life, but it was all that was left to them, and they took it up without complaint, for they knew they were powerless against some will infinitely stronger than their own.[6] Dunbar, here, presents a failed migration in two respects. The Hamiltons unsuccessfully migrated in the physical sense. That is, they were forced to return to the home of their ancestors and the origins of their persecution—and they were not happy. Therefore, they could neither find agency nor establish self-identity wherever they physically migrated, whether it be the South or the North. The author never highlights any redemptive moments throughout his work. Instead, Dunbar’s work points to the dangers of movement without purpose. The Hamiltons were played by “the Gods,” a power so “infinitely stronger than [the Hamiltons] own” that dictated their every move.[7] Their lack of control over their circumstances inhibited them from ever attaining any sense of a real migration. This conclusion points towards the consequences of an unsuccessful migration both in the physical and in the internal sense. 4. A Partial Migration While Dunbar’s work portrays a completely failed migration, both in the physical and internal components, William Attaway’s Blood on the Forge says something quite different. In this novel, three brothers, Big Mat, Melody, and Chinatown, migrate to a Pennsylvania steel mill after Big Mat murders a white man. Each character has distinct characteristics that define different themes in the novel. Melody is representative of the degradation of folk culture. Throughout the novel, he “slicks” away on his guitar whenever he feels the need to express himself or alleviate his sadness.[8] As Melody migrates, he loses his touch with music. “Right now all of Melody’s world was a little dull pain. He had left his guitar behind.”[9] Chinatown represents the loss of joy that accompanies a failed migration. A character that laughs and enjoys life freely, he is the most cheerful and vain character in the novel. Chinatown constantly stares at his golden tooth through a mirror and carries it with pride. Chinatown’s migration to Pennsylvania causes him to lose his sight, rendering him unable to see his golden tooth, but also rendering him unable to see joy in his life. He then changes into a quiet and subdued character, a result of a failed internal migration. Lastly, Big Mat shows how strength is lost without a proper internal migration. Through his strength, he keeps the family together and alive in the South, representing the pillar of the household. The anger and fury enlivened in him by his migration north lead to his tragic death: “Sometimes they broke through, and he filled with red madness – like a boar at mating – hog wild.”[10] Together, these three brothers constitute some of the qualities of many African American migrants. Attaway argues that physical migration strips these people of their culture, joy, and strength. In other words, the brothers were forced to search for these qualities in a foreign environment to attempt a complete migration. This migration, however, was not fulfilled: “‘Mill never be my home.’”[11] Here, the physical movement did not satisfy the brothers. Attaway implies that this migration was incomplete because of a lack in internal migration. Big Mat dies because he is unable to recognize human joy and culture; he can only survive through his relationships with his brothers—through joy and culture. Each brother was unable to fully accomplish migration because he was short-sighted; each one lacked the agency, sense of belonging, and pursuit of identity—three aspects crucial for the fulfillment of true migration. 5. A True Migration While Attaway depicts a tale of unaccomplished migration, Richard Wright writes an uplifting novel, Black Boy, that shows that true migration, in its physical and internal senses, is possible. Griffin identifies that African Americans, even in the South, could indeed find agency in the midst of oppressive forces.[12] In fact, Wright’s semi-autobiographical work recounts his personal search for identity and agency. He goes through various transitions throughout his lifetime. Early in the novel, he objects to the cultural barrenness[13] that exists in the black community: In shaking hands I was doing something that I was to do countless times in the years to come: acting in conformity with what others expected of me even though, by the very nature and form of my life, I did not and could not share their spirit.[14] Wright shows his indignation for this conformist culture—the idea that black people were lower than white people. He dedicates his life to finding a sense of belonging. Thus, he migrates to Chicago, searching for his identity. There, he develops and matures his perspective regarding humanity. He also encounters the Communist party, which he admires for their freedom of expression, however flawed: “But it seemed to me that here at last in the realm of revolutionary expression was where Negro experience could find a home, a functioning value and role.”[15] Here, Wright realized for the first time that black people could have agency in America. This agency came in the form of language, and thus embodies the one of the purposes of Wright’s Black Boy. Wright concludes, I would hurl words into this darkness and wait for an echo, and if an echo sounded, no matter how faintly, I would send other words to tell, to march, to fight, to create a sense of the hunger for life that gnaws in us all, to keep alive in our hearts a sense of the inexpressibly human.[16] In the end, Wright’s character matures to realize that, regardless of his physical position, he should stand for what he believes. Wright’s work embodies the concept of achieving true migration. Not only is his physical position fully manifested, but he also gains agency, a sense of belonging, and self-identity. Wright will march and fight, hurl words, and keep his heart alive, for he recognizes his own voice—his own black identity. 6. The African American Identity Griffin pushes us to consider a larger scope—history—when reading African American literature. The failed migration, the half migration, and the true migration are all representative of components of the African American Great Migration and the problems that marred a moving population. Thomas Morgan, Associate Professor of African American Studies at the University of Dayton, considers the search for urban identity as the main crux of African American narratives. Morgan writes, The specific construction of an urban identity for African Americans at the turn of the century is an important development in the narrative history of African American literature.[17] The search for urban identity, otherwise defined by the identity of African Americans after migration, characterizes these narratives. Morgan asserts his claim, viewing the whole of the Great Migration as an establishment of identity in the Northern regions of the United States. Thus, Dunbar, Attaway, and Wright, are emblematic of historical truths, reflecting critical aspects of the African American migration. Dunbar, through his experimentation, satirically comments on the helplessness of the people in their struggles to find a better life. Attaway provides a reflection of qualities lost during migration—joy, culture, strength. These novels highlight the consequences of physically migrating without internal migration. Wright, however, gives hope that African Americans can find and produce their own agency in the face of adversity—that they can achieve true migration. These three novels, and the individual migration struggles they present, together encompass African Americans’ need during the Great Migration to gain agency, identity, and a sense of belonging, as well as the consequences of failing to adequately meet this need. 7. Conclusion The variety of African American narratives, however, serve a deeper purpose. Morrison identifies the function of such African American narratives as The Sport of the Gods, Blood on the Forge, and Black Boy. Indeed, art is not for art’s sake alone; these narratives seek to highlight the inequities present in the Great Migration and encourage political response. The failure and success of internal migration in these migration narratives represent different expressions of the African American people during that time period; it requires the readers to react—to respond. Dunbar is sarcastic. Attaway is straightforward. Wright is reflective. In whichever literary style or format, the many of the conclusion are the same: the African American people need and desire a home—only then can they find identity and agency, and only then can they experience true migration. [1] Griffin, F.J. Who Set You Flowin’?. Page 46 [2] Toni Morrison. [3] Rodgers, L.R. Canaan Bound. Page 4 [4] Martin, Primeau, and Jarrett. The Collected Novels of Paul Laurence Dunbar. Page 308 [5] Dunbar, P.L. The Sport of the Gods. Page 3 [6] Ibid. Page 118 [7] Ibid. [8] Attaway, W. Blood on the Forge. Page 4 [9] Ibid. Page 234 [10] Ibid. Page 12 [11] Ibid. Page 84 [12] Griffin, F.J. Who Set You Flowin’?. Page 32 [13] This barrenness is in direct reference to his other work 12 Million Black Voices. Wright is referring to the loss of culture and the concession and conformation of the black community to white expectations. He argues here that African Americans have lost their agency and have only two options: fight or flight. [14] Wright, Richard. Black Boy. Page 37 [15] Ibid. Page 318. [16] Ibid. Page 384 [17] Morgan, Thomas. The City as Refuge: Constructing Urban Blackness in Paul Laurence Dunbar's The Sport of the Gods and James Weldon Johnson's The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. Page 215
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